The Gospel According to John (also referred to as the Gospel of John, the Fourth Gospel, or simply John; Greek: Τὸ κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον, to kata Ioannen euangelion) is one of the four canonical gospels in the Christian Bible. In the New Testament it traditionally appears fourth, after the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection, and post-resurrection appearances of Jesus.
Chapter 21 states that the book derives from the testimony of the "disciple whom Jesus loved" and early church tradition identified him as John the Apostle, one of Jesus' Twelve Apostles. The gospel is closely related in style and content to the three surviving Epistles of John such that commentators treat the four books,[1] along with the Book of Revelation, as a single body of Johannine literature. According to some modern scholars, however, the apostle John was not the author of any of these books.[2]
Charles Barrett,[3] and later Raymond E. Brown,[4] proposed the development of a tradition around the "John's Community" from which the gospel arose.[5] Likewise, the discovery of a huge number of papyrus fragments with the johannine thematic has led to more scholars to recognize that the texts of this Community, called the Johannine literature, was one of the most influential mainstreams in the early times of Christianity.[6]
The discourses seem to be concerned with issues of the church-and-synagogue debate at the time when the Gospel was written.[7] It is notable that, in the gospel, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, rather than as part of a wider Christian community.[8] Though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of Christian and Jewish opposition to each other.[9]
Composition and setting
Stained glass depiction of St. John at St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina.
Authorship, date and origin
Main article: Authorship of the Johannine works
The Gospel of John is anonymous; Church tradition identified the
"beloved disciple" mentioned in John 21:24 as the author and named him (John the evangelist), but this is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.[10][Notes 1] Scholars believe that the text went through two to three "editions" before reaching its current form,[11] [12] and because of this complex and multi-layered history it is meaningless to speak of a single author.[13]John is usually dated to 90-110 CE.[14][Notes 2] It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue,[15] and John, which regularly describes Jesus' opponents simply as "the Jews", is more consistently hostile to the Jews than any any other body of New Testament writing.[16][Notes 3] In later centuries, John was used to support anti-Semitic polemics, but the author of the gospel regarded himself as a Jew, he championed Jesus and his followers as Jews, and he probably wrote for a largely Jewish community.[17][18]
Sources
Rudolf Bultmann, in a seminal work published in 1941, argued that John's sources were a hypothetical "Signs Gospel" listing Christ's miracles, a revelation discourse, and a passion narrative. Bultman's work, combined with that of other scholars (the work of Raymond E. Brown was particularly influential in the English-speaking world), led to a scholarly consensus in the second half of the 20th century that the Gospel of John was independent of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic gospels. This agreement broke down in the last decade of the century, and there are now many scholars who believe that John did know the Synoptics, especially Mark, while the hypothesis of a "signs" source has been increasingly undermined.[19]But theories of either complete independence of or complete dependence on the Synoptics are largely rejected in current scholarship: on the one hand, elements such as distinctive Johannine language, the lengthy discourses, and the prologue on the Logos, are clearly unique to John; on the other, John clearly shares a multitude of episodes with the other three.[20]
The most important sources used by the evangelist were the Jewish scriptures (the Tanakh, more or less identical with the Christian Old Testament), probably in the Greek translation. John quotes from them directly, references important figures from them, and uses narratives from them as the basis for several of the discourses. But the author was also familiar with non-Jewish sources: the Logos of the prologue (the Word that is with God from the beginning of creation) derives from both the Jewish concept of Lady Wisdom and from the Greek philosophers, while John 6 alludes not only to the exodus but also to Greco-Roman mystery cults, while John 4 alludes to Samaritan messianic beliefs. [21]
Historical reliability
Chapters 19 and 21 of John hint that "the disciple whom Jesus loved" was an eyewitness to Jesus's ministry, but the majority of scholars are cautious of accepting this at face value.[22][23] With the exception of the 'Johannine Thunderbolt" passages (Matthew 11:25-27 and Luke 10:21-22) the teachings of Jesus found in the synoptic gospels are very different from those recorded in John, and since the 19th century some scholars have argued that these discourses in Johannine style are less likely to be historical, and more likely to have been written for theological purposes.[24]Scholars usually agree that John is not entirely without historical value.[25] It has become generally accepted that certain sayings in John are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts, while his representation of the topography around Jerusalem is often superior to that of the synoptics, his testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and his presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels.[25]
Textual history and position in the New Testament
The Rylands Papyrus is perhaps the earliest New Testament fragment; dated from its handwriting to about 125.
Structure and content
Jesus giving the Farewell Discourse (John 14–17) to his eleven remaining disciples, from the Maesta by Duccio, 1308–1311.
| Gospel of John |
|---|
- Prologue (John 1): Jesus is placed in his cosmic setting as the eternal Logos who reveals God and gives salvation to believers; John the Baptist, Andrew and Nathanael bear witness to him as Lamb of God, Son of God, and Messiah.[28]
- Jesus' ministry (the "book of signs" - John 2-12): The narrative of Jesus' public ministry consists of seven miracles or "signs," interspersed with long dialogues and discourses and "I am" sayings, culminating with the raising of Lazarus from the dead. In John it is this, and not the cleansing of the temple incident, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed.
- Passion and resurrection (the "book of glory" - John 13-20): The passion narrative opens with an account of the Last Supper that differs significantly from that found in the synoptics, with Jesus washing the disciples' feet instead of ushering in a new covenant of his body and blood.[29] This is followed by Jesus' farewell discourses, an account of his arrest, trial, death and burial, his resurrection appearances, and his final commission for his followers. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel, "that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name".[28]
- Epilogue (John 21): Chapter 21 tells of Jesus' post-resurrection appearance to his disciples by the lake, the miraculous catch of fish, the restoration of Peter, and the fate of the "beloved disciple".[30] A large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel.[31]
Theology
Christology
The Gospel of John presents a "high Christology", depicting Jesus as divine, and yet subordinate to the one God.[32] This gospel gives more focus to the relationship of the Son to the Father than the other gospels. It also focuses on the relation of the Redeemer to believers, the announcement of the Holy Spirit as the Comforter (Greek Paraclete), and the prominence of love as an element in Christian character.Jesus' divine role
In the synoptics, Jesus speaks often about the Kingdom of God; his own divine role is obscured (see Messianic secret). In John, Jesus talks openly about his divine role. He says, for example, that he is the way, the truth, and the life.[14:6] He echoes Yahweh's own statements with several "I am" declarations that also identify him with symbols of major significance.[33] He says, "I am":- "the bread of life"[6:35]
- "the light of the world"[8:12]
- "the gate of the sheep"[10:7]
- "the good shepherd"[10:11]
- "the resurrection and the life"[11:25]
- "the way, the truth, and the life"[14:6] and
- "the true vine"[15:1]
Logos
Main article: Logos
In the Prologue, John identifies Jesus as the Logos (Word). A term
from Greek philosophy, it meant the principle of cosmic reason. In this
sense, it was similar to the Hebrew concept of Wisdom, God's companion
and intimate helper in creation. The Jewish philosopher Philo
merged these two themes when he described the Logos as God's creator of
and mediator with the material world. The evangelist adapted Philo's
description of the Logos, applying it to Jesus, the incarnation of the
Logos.[35]The opening verse of John is translated as "the Word was with God and the Word was God" in all "orthodox" English Bibles.[36] There are alternative views. The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures of Jehovah's Witnesses has, "the Word was with God, and the Word was a god." The Scholar's Version of the gospel, developed by the Jesus Seminar, loosely translates the phrase as "The Logos was what God was," offered as a better representation of the original meaning of the evangelist.[37]
John the Baptist
Main article: John the Baptist
John's account of the Baptist is different from that of the synoptic gospels. John is not called "the Baptist."[38]
John's ministry overlaps with that of Jesus, his baptism of Jesus is
not explicitly mentioned, but his witness to Jesus is unambiguous.[38] The evangelist almost certainly knew the story of John's baptism of Jesus and he makes a vital theological use of it.[39] He subordinates John to Jesus, perhaps in response to members of the Baptist's sect who denied Jesus' superiority.[40]In John, Jesus and his disciples go to Judea early in Jesus' ministry when John has not yet been imprisoned and executed by Herod. He leads a ministry of baptism larger than John's own. The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black, containing no historically accurate information.[37] Historically, John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.[41]
Gnostic elements
See also: Gnosticism
Though not commonly understood as Gnostic, many scholars, perhaps most notably Rudolf Bultmann, have forcefully argued that the Gospel of John has elements in common with Gnosticism.[40]
Christian Gnosticism did not fully develop until the mid-2nd century,
and so 2nd-century Proto-Orthodox Christians concentrated much effort in
examining and refuting it.[42]
To say John’s Gospel contained elements of Gnosticism is to assume that
Gnosticism had developed to a level that required the author to respond
to it.[43]
Bultmann, for example, argued that the opening theme of the Gospel of
John, the pre-existing Logos, was actually a Gnostic theme. Other
scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown have argued that the pre-existing Logos theme arises from the more ancient Jewish writings in the eighth chapter of the Book of Proverbs, and was fully developed as a theme in Hellenistic Judaism by Philo Judaeus.Comparisons to Gnosticism are based not in what the author says, but in the language he uses to say it, notably, use of the concepts of Logos and Light.[44] Other scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown, have argued that the ancient Jewish Qumran community also used the concept of Light versus Darkness. The arguments of Bultmann and his school were seriously compromised by the mid-20th century discoveries of the Nag Hammadi library of genuine Gnostic writings (which are dissimilar to the Gospel of John) as well as the Qumran library of Jewish writings (which are often similar to the Gospel of John).[citation needed]
Gnostics read John but interpreted it differently from the way non-Gnostics did.[45] Gnosticism taught that salvation came from gnosis, secret knowledge, and Gnostics did not see Jesus as a savior but a revealer of knowledge.[46] Barnabas Lindars asserts that the gospel teaches that salvation can only be achieved through revealed wisdom, specifically belief in (literally belief into) Jesus.[47]
Raymond Brown contends that "The Johannine picture of a savior who came from an alien world above, who said that neither he nor those who accepted him were of this world,[17:14] and who promised to return to take them to a heavenly dwelling[14:2–3] could be fitted into the gnostic world picture (even if God's love for the world in 3:16 could not)."[48] It has been suggested that similarities between John's Gospel and Gnosticism may spring from common roots in Jewish Apocalyptic literature.[49]
Comparison with other writings
John and the synoptics
The Book of John is significantly different from the Synoptic Gospels:- Jesus is identified with the divine Word ("Logos") and the Word is called theos ("god" in Greek).[50]
- The Gospel of John gives no account of the Nativity of Jesus, unlike Matthew and Luke, and his mother, while frequently mentioned, is never identified by name. John does assert that Jesus was known as the "son of Joseph" in 6:42.
- In contrast to Matthew and Luke (but not Mark), John's Jesus comes from Nazareth rather than the messianic town of Bethlehem. For John, Jesus' town of origin is irrelevant, for he comes from beyond this world, from God the Father.[51]
- The Pharisees, portrayed as more uniformly legalistic and opposed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels, are instead portrayed as sharply divided; they debate frequently in the Gospel of John's accounts. Some, such as Nicodemus, even go so far as to be at least partially sympathetic to Jesus. This is believed to be a more accurate historical depiction of the Pharisees, who made debate one of the tenets of their system of belief.[52]
- John makes no mention of Jesus' baptism,[53] but quotes John the Baptist's description of the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove, as happens at Jesus' baptism in the other gospels.
- John the Baptist publicly proclaims Jesus to be the Lamb of God. The Baptist recognizes Jesus secretly in Matthew, and not at all in Mark or Luke. The Gospel of John also has John the Baptist deny that he is Elijah, whereas Mark and Matthew identify him with Elijah.
- The Cleansing of the Temple appears near the beginning of Jesus' ministry. In the synoptics this occurs soon before Jesus is crucified.
- John contains four visits by Jesus to Jerusalem, three associated with the Passover feast. This chronology suggests Jesus' public ministry lasted two or three years. The synoptic gospels describe only one trip to Jerusalem in time for the Passover observance.
- Jesus washes the disciples' feet instead of the synoptics' ritual with bread and wine (the Eucharist)
- No other women are mentioned going to the tomb with Mary Magdalene.
- John does not contain any parables.[54] Rather it contains metaphoric stories or allegories, such as The Shepherd and The Vine, in which each individual element corresponds to a specific group or thing.
- Major synoptic speeches of Jesus are absent, including the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet discourse.[55]
- While the synoptics look forward to a future Kingdom of God (using the term parousia, meaning "coming"), John presents a more "realized eschatology".[56][clarification needed]
- The Kingdom of God is mentioned only twice in John.[57] In contrast, the other gospels repeatedly use the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven as important concepts.
- The exorcisms of demons are never mentioned as in the synoptics.[53][57]
- John never lists all of the Twelve Disciples and names at least one disciple (Nathanael) whose name is not found in the synoptics; Nathanael appears to parallel the apostle Bartholomew found in the synoptics, as both are paired with Philip in the respective gospels. While James and John are prominent disciples in the synoptics, John mentions them only in the epilogue, where they are referred to not by name but as the "sons of Zebedee."
- Thomas the Apostle is given a personality beyond a mere name, as "Doubting Thomas".
| Item | Description (From "Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus")[58] |
|---|---|
| Material | John has a unique selection of material. It lacks scenes from the synoptics such as Jesus' baptism, the calling of the Twelve, exorcisms, parables, the Transfiguration, and the Last Supper. Conversely, it includes scenes not found in the synoptics, including Jesus turning water into wine (the marriage feast at Cana), the resurrection of Lazarus, Jesus washing the feet of his disciples, and multiple visits to Jerusalem. |
| Theology | In Mark, Jesus urges his disciples to keep his divinity secret, but in John it is flaunted, even referring to himself as "I AM" - the title God gives himself in Exodus at his self-revelation to Moses. In the synoptics the chief theme is the "kingdom of God", while John's theme is Jesus as the source of eternal life. |
| Chronology | In the synoptics the ministry of Jesus takes up a single year, but in John it takes up three (there are references to three Passovers). Events are not in the same order: the date of the crucifixion is one example, the time of Jesus' anointing in Bethany is another, and in the synoptics Jesus cleanses the temple at the end of his ministry, while in John this happens at the beginning. |
| Discrepancies | There are several discrepancies between the synoptics and John, some amounting to contradictions. For example, according to the synoptics the arrest of Jesus was a reaction to the cleansing of the temple, while according to John it was triggered by the raising of Lazarus. |
| Literary style | In the synoptics Jesus speaks pithy sayings; in John, he gives lengthy speeches in language identical with that of the narrator (the gospel's author). The vocabulary is also different, and filled with theological import: in John, Jesus does not work "miracles" (dunamis in Greek), but "signs" (semeion) which unveil his divine identity. |
The Johannine literature
Representations
Bede translating the Gospel of John on his deathbed, by James Doyle Penrose, 1902
It has been depicted in live narrations and dramatized in productions, skits, plays, and passion plays, productions, as well as on film. The most recent film portrayal is that of 2003's The Gospel of John, directed by Philip Saville and narrated by Christopher Plummer, and starring Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus.
Parts of the Gospel have been set to music, most notably in Steve Warner's power anthem "Come and See," written for the 20th anniversary of the Alliance for Catholic Education and including lyrical fragments taken from the first book. As well, some composers made settings of the Passion as portrayed in the Gospel of John, the most notable being the one composed by Johann Sebastian Bach, although some verses are borrowed from Matthew.[59]
